The weapons and equipment of the Taiping Army were mainly cold weapons such as knives, spears, bows, and arrows, as well as old firearms such as shotguns and rifles. Later, they were equipped with a small number of new firearms such as foreign guns and cannons. The warships in Shuiying were mainly civilian ships with different standards and outdated equipment. Later, a small number of self-built small warships were used to seize enemy steamers and gunboats for service.

The Taiping cavalry mainly played a role on the battlefield. From the initial dozens or hundreds, to more than a thousand during the Northern Expedition, to thousands during the Battle of Sanhe, to more than 20,000 during the Tianjing siege, the cavalry gradually grew and grew. The Taiping Army was equipped with cavalry on all battlefields where cavalry was needed, so they were scattered and had limited effect. Generally speaking, the cavalry accounted for a very small proportion of the total military strength. If the total strength of the Northern Expedition was 30,000, the proportion of cavalry would be approximately 1:30. One of the reasons for the failure of the Northern Expedition was the serious shortage of cavalry troops. Meibon and Freddy also said: "If they had artillery and cavalry, they would definitely be able to continue to win and hit Tianjin and Beijing." (Note: The second volume of "History of the Taiping Heavenly Kingdom Translation Series" edited by the Beijing Taiping Heavenly Kingdom Historical Research Association, China Bookstore 1983 edition, page 153) Meibon and Freddy affirmed the importance of the cavalry to the Northern Expedition, but they believed that the Taiping Army in the Northern Expedition had no cavalry. In fact, there were cavalry during the Northern Expedition, but their proportion was very small and not easily noticeable. In the Battle of Sanhe, the cavalry invested by the Taiping Army was not high in the total strength, but the infantry had an overwhelming advantage. What is important is that the strategy and tactics were appropriate. In the Battle of Poyang Lake Plain in 1861, the Taiping Army invested only 4,000 cavalry (divided into two teams of 2,000 each), while the Qing Army’s cavalry accounted for one-third of the total force (the total force was about 50,000). Moreover, they were "well-armed, strong and capable of fighting" (Note: (English) "A Personal Experience of the Taiping Heavenly Kingdom Revolution" written by Ling Xi and translated by Wang Weizhou, Volume 1, Shanghai Ancient Books Publishing House, 1985 edition, page 199.). As a result, the Taiping Army won a great victory. . There is no set rule for the equipment of the cavalry, and it is mainly determined by the actual needs of the war or campaign. If the strategy is inadequate and the tactics are inappropriate, no matter how many cavalry there are, it will only lead to failure.

1. The origin of the arms trade and its smuggling nature

The arms trade was the result of the correct foreign trade policy implemented by the Taiping Rebellion and the product of the complex and severe war environment it faced. Since the Taiping Heavenly Kingdom established its capital in Tianjing, it has been promoting open and legitimate foreign trade, actively seeking foreign aid, and requiring merchants from various countries to pay tariffs and abide by various trade laws, systems, and policies of the Taiping Heavenly Kingdom. Especially on the battlefield of blood and fire, the Taiping soldiers saw with their own eyes the tremendous power of foreign guns and cannons. Therefore, in foreign trade, "their most concerned about were foreign weapons" ("The Taiping Army in Shanghai - "Beijing") "Selected Translations of Huajie News", Shanghai People's Publishing House, 1983 edition, pages 43, 49, 309, 321, 142, 469). Soon after Tianjing was established as the capital, the Zhenjiang Taiping Army told passing British ships: "If you have cannon, gunpowder, and rice grains, you can come and sell them." (Chinese Modern History Materials Series: "Taiping Heavenly Kingdom", Shanghai People's Publishing House, 1957 edition (The same below), Volume 7, page 123)" At the end of 1858, Hou Yutian, the Wuhu guard of the Taiping Rebellion, once asked Captain Buck of the British ship sailing in the Yangtze River to "give me two small foreign cannons and some foreign powder. There are more than a dozen foreign cannon nozzles" ("Taiping Rebellion Document Collection", Zhonghua Book Company, 1979 edition, pp. 309, 324-325, 443, 445.). In June 1861, Hong Tianfu Chen, the leader of the Taiping Army stationed in Zhapu, sent a note to the British Navy Admiral Robert Ho, saying that the Taiping Army would not attack Ningbo, and offered to trade guns and gunpowder with it, guaranteeing that "no matter what the price, everything should be paid to (Franz Michael: The Taiping Rebellion, Volume III: Documents and Comments, P1141.)" Even in 1863, when wars were still ongoing, King Zhong Li Xiucheng and King Mu Tan Shaoguang wrote to Gordon, the leader of the Ever Victorious Army, to discuss the arms deal: "As for everyone's military equipment and artillery, everyone knows the details of each other. You are seeking profit, and I will take care of it. We obey trade. There is no ban. If you have foreign guns, guns, and foreign goods at this time, you can still come here to trade as usual.

("Compilation of Documents of the Taiping Rebellion", 1979 edition of Zhonghua Book Company, pp. 309, 324~325, 443, 445.) "Robert Phelan, an American businessman of Qiongji Company who once did a large arms business with the Taiping Army, reported to his superiors that the Taiping The army "welcomes foreigners to do business with them...the first thing they need is arms, as much as they need." (S.C. Lockwood: Augustine Heard and Company, 1858～1862: American Merchants in China, p95. Quoted from "Materials on the History of Modern Shipping in China" edited by Nie Baozhang, Volume 1, Shanghai People's Publishing House, 1983 edition, p. 267. )" After the Taiping Heavenly Kingdom established its capital in Tianjing, Western powers announced the so-called "neutrality" policy one after another, prohibiting all trade with the Taiping Heavenly Kingdom except opium. In 1855, the British even issued a decree strictly prohibiting subjects in China from "providing sales or agency services to the Taiping Army" War material of any kind. Or equip the ship on your behalf. ("Historical Translation Series of the Taiping Rebellion," Vol. 1, 1981 edition of Zhonghua Book Company, p. 52.)" The Qing government also repeatedly sent notes to the great powers, requesting that those who "went to the mainland without permission or smuggled guns and gunpowder to the mainland should be escorted back immediately. The goods were handed over to the consul of the country for investigation and the goods were confiscated. ("Selected Archives of Wu Xu", Volume 1, Jiangsu People's Publishing House, 1983 edition, page 104.) "However, the huge demand for arms and the temptation of huge commercial profits in military struggles are difficult to prohibit by any form of law. . On the one hand, the Taiping Heavenly Kingdom has been seeking to purchase elite weapons and equipment from foreign merchants; on the other hand, there has been a steady flow of adventurous arms dealers who violated the prohibitions of the Qing government and foreign powers and did not avoid the dangerous journey. The arms trade has always been prohibited.

2. Investigation of the methods, regions, scale and transportation routes of the arms trade

The Taiping Rebellion adopted a flexible and diverse approach to the arms trade. It first sent people to purchase in an organized manner. After the Taiping Army captured Suzhou, Jiaxing and Shengze Prime Ministers Taiping Army Food Xiang, Gengtianfu Wang Xingeng, and Xitianfu Shen Zhishan successively sent people to sneak into Shanghai with Huiyin to "detect information on officers and soldiers, and purchase foreign guns and gunpowder to support the bandit camp." ("A Brief Collection of Historical Materials of the Taiping Rebellion", Volume 2, Zhonghua Book Company, 1962 edition, page 184.)" In October of the following year, the loyal king Li Xiucheng ordered the officials of Zhouzhuang and Chenfu townships to "go to Shanghai to purchase one thousand foreign guns. pole, 200,000 bronze caps, and 200 pieces of red crepe", which were considered for military use ("Selected Archives of Wu Xu", second volume, Jiangsu People's Publishing House, 1983 edition, page 126.). In February 1862, the troops stationed in Nanhui The leader of the Taiping Army, Li Tianfu Xu, once sent three Taiping soldiers to Songjiang with 1,400 yuan of foreign silver to buy foreign guns and gunpowder ("The Taiping Heavenly Kingdom", Volume 6, page 490.) In Shanghai, the Taiping Heavenly Kingdom specially appointed a secret arms agent. People, Tonghuaer's foreign gun team competed for foreign guns and ammunition ("Historical Translations of the Taiping Heavenly Kingdom", third volume, Zhonghua Book Company, 1985 edition, page 83.) Secondly, they invited the "foreign brothers" who came to visit or served the Taiping Heavenly Kingdom. In May 1860, the Taiping Heavenly Kingdom tried to invite foreign missionaries Hewell and others who came to Suzhou to bring money to buy weapons in Shanghai, but they were rejected ("The Taiping Army in Shanghai - Selected Translation of Beihua News") , Shanghai People's Publishing House, 1983 edition, pp. 43, 49, 309, 321, 142, 469). In early 1861, after the British sailor Li Xi joined the Taiping Army in Nanjing, the loyal king Li Xiucheng asked him to coach the Taiping Army. He was also sent to purchase arms for the Taiping Army many times. In December 1863, Li Xiucheng issued a road certificate to Lin Xi for the last time and sent him to "go to Shanghai and Ningbo to purchase warships" ("Taiping Heavenly Kingdom", Volume 2, page 872. ). From March to June 1863, Cai, the deputy commander of the Taiping Heavenly Kingdom, led the presidential amphibious army, Li, the loyal thirty-ninth general in front of Wang Zongdian, and Yu, Tianan, the general of the Zhonghong Dynasty, also launched attacks. Give the "foreign brothers" a road certificate to go to Taicang, Shanghai, Jiaxing and other places to purchase military supplies ("Newly discovered Taiping Heavenly Kingdom road certificate and checkpoint certificate", see "Modern History Materials" No. 65, China Social Sciences Press, 1987 edition, Pages 3 to 4.).

In August of the same year, after Bai Qiwen, the former leader of the Changsheng Army, defected to the Taiping Army, King Mu Wang Tan Shaoguang sent him to Shanghai to buy foreign guns and arms, and told him to lead as many troops as he could buy (translated by Wang Chongwu and Li Shiqing) : "Translation Series of Historical Materials of the Taiping Rebellion", first series, 1954 edition of Shenzhou Guoguang Society, page 66). The third is to proactively engage in arms transactions with foreign businessmen and arms dealers who take the risk. The composition of these foreigners who engage in arms transactions with the Taiping Heavenly Kingdom is complex, and they mainly fall into the following five categories: (1) People who sympathize with and support the revolutionary cause of the Taiping Heavenly Kingdom. They were very dissatisfied with the so-called "neutrality" policy implemented by the great powers. They believed that "since foreigners are guilty of selling arms and growing hair, then admirals and governors should also be guilty of helping officers and soldiers." A foreign friend who claimed to be a foreign minister publicly declared that he He once "sold foreign guns and Changmao many times, and there will still be foreign guns and other items for sale in the future. That is, I personally sold all the foreign guns used by Changmao in Taicang." ("Selected Files of Wu Xu", fifth series, Jiangsu People's Publisher’s 1984 edition, page 373.)” (2) Some high-status diplomatic officials in China. In 1853, Edward Cunningham (Cunningham, Edward), an American Qichang merchant and deputy consul in Shanghai, sold a ship and a large number of American firearms and ammunition to the Taiping Army. Unexpectedly, he was detected by the Qing army, which caused a public outcry in Shanghai. ((France) Mei Ming and Fu Lide, translated by Ni Jinglan: "History of the French Concession in Shanghai", Shanghai Translation Publishing House, 1983 edition, page 100.). In September 1863, the Qing army seized nine foreigners on a Ningbo fishing boat who were selling arms to the Taiping Army. One of them was "Deacon Zaishen". These prominent people are also motivated by huge profits and engage in smuggling. (3) Businessmen who are eager to make huge profits. According to Falside, the deputy leader of the foreign gun team who was captured by the Taiping Army, at that time, "for short guns that could be bought for fifteen or twenty yuan in Shanghai, the Taiping Army had to pay the smugglers one hundred yuan" ("History of the Taiping Rebellion") Translation Series", third series, Zhonghua Book Company, 1985 edition, page 119). According to a report by Yiliang, the governor of Liangjiang in November 1853, "The barbarians used to sell foreign silver for three yuan per barrel of gunpowder, but now it has increased to twenty-five or six yuan." Private sale" ("The Beginning and End of Preparing for the Barbarian Affairs" (Xianfeng Dynasty), Volume 1, Zhonghua Book Company, 1979 edition, page 233.), foreign businessmen flocked to it. "There have always been unscrupulous foreigners who brought foreign guns to Suzhou to sell them for long hair. Although the Chinese officials inspected them very strictly, many of them leaked. ("Selected Files of Wu Xu", fifth series, Jiangsu People's Publishing House, 1984 (Annual edition, page 399)" According to the estimate of the British Consul in Shanghai, Aliguo, at that time, the countries in China "were satisfied with the barbarian merchants and hated the harassment by the bandits, which caused the goods to be unsalable; they were trying to evade taxes and support gunpowder and food profiteers. , eight out of ten. ("The Beginning and End of Preparing the Barbarian Affairs" (Xianfeng Dynasty), Volume 1, Zhonghua Book Company, 1979 edition, page 242.)" It is worth noting that, in addition to ordinary merchants, foreign companies rely on their strong strength. , accounting for a large part of the arms trade with the Taiping Rebellion. According to a report to the British government in 1862 by Bruce, the British Minister to China, and Robert Ho, the Admiral of the Navy, at that time "the foreign companies in Hong Kong and the treaty ports were openly engaged in the gun business" and "many ships transported firearms and ammunition to the foreign companies in Shanghai. The rebels, far away from the scope of the consulate's supervision, unloaded the goods at a pre-arranged location so that the Taiping Army could pick them up. ((France) Mei Ming and Fu Lide, translated by Ni Jinglan: "History of the French Concession in Shanghai", Shanghai Translation Publishing House, 1983. 2016 edition, page 248.)" In order to conceal their identity, some well-known foreign firms in the British Concession in Shanghai changed their packaging methods and sold boxes of carbines labeled as "umbrellas" and revolvers packaged in "Bible boxes" to Taiping. Jun (written by (French) Mei Ming and Fu Lide, translated by Ni Jinglan: "History of the French Concession in Shanghai", Shanghai Translation Publishing House, 1983 edition, page 216.). In May 1862, after the foreign gun teams captured Jiading and Qingpu, they found dozens of iron cannons manufactured in 1861 and stamped with the words "Tongzhen Foreign Trade" and the Crown trademark of the British merchant ("The Taiping Army in Shanghai"). ——"Selected Translations of Beihua Jiebao", Shanghai People's Publishing House, 1983 edition, pp. 43, 49, 309, 321, 142, 469). (4) Foreign scoundrels, criminals, and adventurers scattered in treaty ports.

During the Taiping Army's attack on Shanghai, "Foreigners came to Shanghai to wander around and have no business, selling foreign guns to help bandits, or scoundrels causing trouble, and there were a lot of them." ("Selected Archives of Wu Xu", Series 5, Jiangsu People's Publishing House, 1984, page 431 )" Li Hongzhang also complained in a letter to Zeng Guoquan in October 1862: "There are many foreign guns among thieves, and they can reach far, and they are all purchased and shipped by Zhongmang devils (i.e. idle foreigners - original note), Guangdong and Ningbo merchant ships. (Compiled by Wu Rulun: "The Complete Works of Li Wenzhonggong", Jinling edition in the 31st year of Guangxu, "Ming Liao Letters", Volume 2, page 14.)" (5) The encounter with the Taiping Army. Foreign officers and soldiers. After the Taiping Army captured Ningbo in December 1861, discipline was strict and no offense was committed. Foreign merchants and the British and French navies rushed to sell arms and supply food. In January 1863, when the "Chang Jie Army" attacked Shaoxing, four French petty officers "were about to sell their firearms for food" because Ningshao Daotai did not provide them with food ("Selected Files of Wu Xu", Series 5, Jiangsu People's Publishing House, 1984 edition, page 393). Even Gordon, the later leader of the Ever-Victorious Army, was lured by huge profits and used foreign merchants to engage in large-scale arms transactions with the Taiping Army (see Jian Youwen: "A Comprehensive Examination of the Taiping Founding Ceremony" (Part 2), pp. 716-719.).

The Taiping Heavenly Kingdom had a positive and proactive attitude towards foreign arms dealers who ventured here. They issued special road certificates to these foreign traders, and even required various cards along the way to provide food and accommodation ("The Newly Discovered Taiping Heavenly Kingdom Road" "According to the pass", see "Modern History Materials" No. 65, China Social Sciences Press, 1987 edition, pp. 3-4).

The arms trade between the Taiping Heavenly Kingdom and foreign countries was mainly carried out in the lower reaches of the Yangtze River and the areas occupied by Su (Fu) and Zhejiang (Jiang), centered on Shanghai, Suzhou, Nanjing, and Ningbo. The main transportation routes are as follows: First, foreign businessmen use large ships to travel from Singapore, Hong Kong and other places by sea to Shanghai, Ningbo and coastal ports such as Zhenhai, Zhapu and Zhangzhou, and then sell them to the Taiping Army on the spot or to other places. The Taiping Army in Zhejiang used this route to receive arms supplies; secondly, they took advantage of the convenience of shipping on the Yangtze River. In the name of trade, foreigners took the opportunity to secretly do arms business with the Taiping Army in various ports along the Yangtze River. The arms and supplies obtained from this route were mainly used to strengthen the Taiping Army in Nanjing. The third is from Shanghai to Suzhou and nearby places via various land and water routes (there are four routes from Suzhou to Shanghai: (1) from Wujiang Waterway to Shanghai; (2) from Wuxian Waterway to Shanghai; (3) From Pingwang Waterway to Shanghai; (4) from Shengze Waterway to Shanghai. There are six routes from Shanghai to Suzhou: (1) Shanghai - Qingpu - Shenhanjing - Gaodian - Suzhou Fengmen, which is a waterway. 196 miles in total; (2) Shanghai - Qingpu - Zhujiajiao - Tengcun - Gaodian - Suzhou - Fengmen, which is a waterway, 210 miles in total; (3) Shanghai - Qingpu - Tuohua Temple - - Xietang Town - Fengmen, Suzhou, is a waterway with a total length of 204 miles; (4) South Huangpu - Mingang - Jinze - Xinta - Tongli - Suzhou; (5) Shanghai - Qingpu - —Cao Tengqiao—Kunshan—Suzhou; (6) Huangdu—Kunshan—Weiting—Suzhou. The above routes refer to (1) "Taiping Heavenly Kingdom Historical Materials Album" edited by Dong Caishi, No. 317, 429-430. Page; (2) "Wu Xu Archives Selected Collection", third volume, page 287 and first volume, pages 314 and 367; (3) "Taiping Heavenly Kingdom Historical Materials Collection", second volume, page 184 and other materials. ), this route was the main area for arms transactions with foreign countries in the late Taiping Heavenly Kingdom. The arms obtained mainly supplied the armaments of the loyal king Li Xiucheng's ministries. The main trading locations are:

In Sufu Province of the Taiping Rebellion, they were mainly Tianjing (Nanjing) and Zhenjiang. As early as March 1853, "foreigners arrived at Xiaguan on a large ship from Shanghai... and showed off their firearms and gunpowder to the bandits. The thieves were overjoyed and encouraged them to welcome their chiefs into the city, and jointly raised funds with them to provide regular aid." Arms...foreigners made huge profits. ((Qing Dynasty) Wang Zhichun: "Qing Dynasty Rouyuan Ji", Zhonghua Book Company 1989 edition, page 259. See also (Qing Dynasty) Xia Xie's "Chinese and Western Chronicles", Yuelu Publishing House 1988 edition, p. 149 pages.

)" A few months later, the British businessman named Le Na Tu (i.e. Wenage) hired two Ningbo fishing boats to load 200 foreign guns, 100 foreign knives, gunpowder, foreign salt and other items," They went to Zhenjiang and sold them to bandits." Since then, Tianjing's Sino-foreign trade has become increasingly prosperous. Not only did foreigners "smuggle arms there to benefit bandits" at the Taiping Army barracks on the Xiaobang border outside the city ("Wu Xu Archives Selections", Volume 5 (Jiangsu People's Publishing House, 1984 edition, p. 414). There are also "many foreign gun shops" in the trading streets outside the four cities. "All French merchants in the city wear long-haired clothes and carry foreign guns and various firearms." For sale there, there is an unnamed steamer parked outside Yifeng Gate, specializing in this kind of business. ("A Brief Collection of Historical Materials of the Taiping Rebellion", Volume 3, page 256.)" After 1860, arms transactions between foreigners and the Taiping Army were so common between Zhenjiang and Tianjing that the opening of the Yangtze River to trade seemed like "a special purpose for "It was established to provide supplies to support the Taiping Army" (written by (British) Wright, translated by Yao Zengguang: "The History of Chinese Tariffs", The Commercial Press, 1964 edition, page 202.).

In Sofia Province In addition to Shanghai, Suzhou, Taicang, and Songjiang, there are also places such as Wujiang, Qingpu, and Jiading. In July 1860, foreign black traders lived in Wujiang for more than ten days and sold four cannons, six barrels of gunpowder, and eight-and-a-half barrels of gunpowder. The arms worth more than 10,000 taels of silver were sold to the Taiping Army, and soon two ships of gunpowder and guns were sent to Suzhou for sale ("Selected Archives of Wu Xu", Volume 1, Jiangsu People's Publishing House, 1983, p. Page 362.). In the same year, the Qing army intercepted three foreign merchant ships that had returned to Qingpu with "guns and ammunition to save the bandits" and forced them to return to their original route ("Wu Xu Archives", p. Volume 1, Jiangsu People's Publishing House, 1983 edition, page 426). In August 1860, "Beihua Jiebao" reported that some well-known foreigners in Shanghai were selling gunpowder and other weapons in the name of snuff in the "Huangpu River." and sold to the rebels in various places in the upper reaches of the Suzhou River" ("The Taiping Army in Shanghai - "Selected Translations of Beihua News", Shanghai People's Publishing House, 1983 edition, pp. 43, 49, 309, 321, 142, 469.). The development of water and land transportation greatly facilitated arms trafficking, making the arms trade in Sufu Province the main arms supply center in the late Taiping Rebellion.

In Zhejiang Province, there are mainly Ningbo, Zhenhai, Shaoxing, Jiaxing, and Zhejiang. Zhapu and other places. In 1862, Jiangnan Customs discovered that "(Taiping troops) were approaching Ningbo and Zhenhai, intercepted seagoing ships, and purchased foreign ships, guns, etc. at high prices." Therefore, he suggested to the Qing court: "Stop trade with Ningbo to avoid colluding with thieves" ("Selected Files of Wu Xu", Series 5, Jiangsu People's Publishing House, 1984, pp. 237-238.). The Ningbo Customs was cleared and gunboats were dispatched. Patrolling the sea area around Zhoushan, he intercepted many foreign ships smuggling firearms and ordnance to the Taiping Army ("Selected Files of Wu Xu", Series 5, Jiangsu People's Publishing House, 1984 edition, page 376.), July 1864, Tianjing. After the fall, the remnants of the Taiping Army went south to Fujian. In October, Prince Li Shixian was stationed in Zhangzhou to repair internal affairs, handle diplomacy, and regroup. His reputation was greatly improved, attracting many international friends to defect to the Taiping Army, and foreign businessmen came to provide arms to the Taiping Army. Li Shixian's "guns, lead and ammunition were all shipped from the barbarians" ("A Personal Experience of the Founding of Taiping" written by (English) Xing Xi and translated by Wang Weizhou, Shanghai Ancient Books Publishing House, 1985 edition (the same below), volume 2, page 656.) , with sophisticated weapons and training in European military techniques, "the Qing army cannot compare with them in this regard"

The Taiping Heavenly Kingdom purchased a wide variety of arms from foreign traders through various channels, including various types of weapons. The quantity of guns and ordnance accessories, warships, ammunition, etc. was also astonishing. For example, in April 1862, a foreign company in Shanghai sold 3,046 rifles, 795 field guns, 484 barrels of gunpowder, or 10,947 pounds of bullets to the Taiping Army in one month. 18,000 rounds and more than 4.5 million cannon caps (C.A. Montalto de Jesus: Historic Shanghai. Shanghai Mercury, 1909. P145.).

After the Taiping Rebellion occupied Ningbo, the scale of arms trade with foreign countries was huge, with "hundreds of cannons, thousands of guns, and tons of ammunition imported" (The North China Herald, May, 17, 1862. No. 616.). A British merchant ship named the "Paragon" once tried to sell 300 6-pound to 32-pound cannons, 100 boxes of small arms, and 50 tons of ammunition to the Taiping Army ("The Taiping Army in Shanghai-"North "Selected Translations of Huajie News", Shanghai People's Publishing House, 1983 edition, pages 43, 49, 309, 321, 142, 469). In the spring of 1862, the Taiping Heavenly Kingdom planned to spend 500,000 taels of silver to send people to the United States to purchase ships and guns. Later, because of Wall's report to Su Songtao Wu Xu, it failed. According to an estimate by Matt Dun, an American who had defected to the Taiping Army, there were 30,000 foreign guns in the Taiping Army in Suzhou, and a quarter of the soldiers were equipped with rifles. All 1,000 guards of the loyal king Li Xiucheng were equipped with rifles (translated by Wang Chongwu and Li Shiqing) : "Translation Series of Historical Materials of the Taiping Rebellion", first series, 1954 edition of Shenzhou Guoguang Society, page 73). In October 1862, when Li Xiucheng led his army to attack Zeng Guofan's Hunan Army camp outside Tianjing, the army had "as many as 20,000 foreign guns" and was equipped with a considerable number of artillery pieces (notes to the original manuscript of "Li Xiucheng's Autobiography" by Luo Ergang) ", Zhonghua Book Company, 1982 edition, page 288). Other generals of the Taiping Heavenly Kingdom such as Auxiliary King Yang Fuqing, Protector King Chen Kunshu, Mu King Tan Shaoguang, Shi Wang Li Shixian, Kang Wang Wang Haiyang, Gui Wang Deng Guangming, Ting Wang Chen Bingwen, Rong Wang Liao Fashou, Du Wang Huang Wenjin, Hui Wang Cai Yuanlong, etc. They all have foreign gun teams and artillery teams of varying sizes. Among them, the foreign artillery team belonging to the king Deng Guangming was "the best in foreign artillery, the best among thieves", with a scale of 5,000 people (Wu Rulun edited: "The Complete Works of Li Wenzhonggong", Jinling Edition in the 31st year of Guangxu, "Ming Liao Letters", Volume 3, page 41). Therefore, people at that time commented: "The thieves have no skills and bravery...they only have foreign cannons. The barbarians overestimated their value, and half of the gold and silver stolen by the thieves after the war went to the barbarians." ("Taiping Heavenly Kingdom Historical Materials Collection", p. Volume 2, 1962 edition of Zhonghua Book Company, page 152) "The prosperity and scale of arms trade between the Taiping Rebellion and foreign countries can be seen from this.

3. The Impact of Arms Trade

Weapons and equipment are one of the important factors in the outcome of a war. The Taiping Rebellion actively carried out foreign arms trade and purchased large quantities of advanced Western military weapons. This not only effectively promoted the development of the Taiping Rebellion's revolutionary movement, but also had a non-negligible impact on the occurrence of the Westernization Movement and the process of modern China's military modernization.

First of all, the import of a large amount of foreign arms greatly improved the Taiping Army's military equipment and greatly enhanced the Taiping Army's combat effectiveness. Soon after the Taiping Army established its capital in Tianjing, it began to purchase and use foreign guns. Each major unit was equipped with a considerable number of foreign guns and cannons. It can be said that until Li Hongzhang led the Huai Army to Shanghai in April 1862, the Taiping Army had always made more use of foreign weapons than the Qing Army, and greatly exceeded the Qing Army in weapons and equipment. Zeng Guofan, the commander-in-chief of the Hunan Army, also admitted in October 1862 that "the thieves are a hundred times better at firearms than I am" (Luo Ergang, Notes on the Original Narrative of Li Xiucheng's Autobiography, p. 288. See also "History of the Taiping Rebellion", Volume 3, Page 186.). This is why the Taiping Heavenly Kingdom was able to conquer the east and west even though its vitality was severely weakened after the Tianjing Incident. It especially attacked the Jiangsu and Zhejiang areas where Chinese and foreign reactionary forces gathered, opened up base areas in Jiangsu and Zhejiang, and fought with the Hunan Army, the Huai Army and the Western Supervision and Training. The gun team and the ever-victorious army competed for eight years, which is inseparable from the role played by the Taiping Army in the late Taiping Rebellion's adoption of a large number of new foreign military weapons.

Secondly, hiring foreign "foreign brothers" coaches who defected to the Taiping Army to use modern hot weapons improved the military technical quality of the Taiping Army to a certain extent. As early as 1854, Luo Gangyou was "surrounded by four foreign Japanese" in Hukou ("The Complete Works of Zeng Guofan·Family Letters", 1, Yuelu Publishing House, 1986 edition, page 710.). After the Taiping Army conquered Jiangsu and Zhejiang in 1860, they attracted a group of foreign military, engineering and technical personnel to serve in the Taiping Army with generous treatment. In addition to teaching the Taiping Army how to use foreign guns and cannons, these foreign "foreign brothers" also taught the Taiping Army a mixture of Chinese and Western formations to adapt to the combat requirements of the new guns and artillery.

With the increase in the number of imported weapons, issues such as the repair and maintenance of guns and the supply of ammunition were quickly put on the agenda. The Taiping Army initially set up a "foreign artillery museum" and a "foreign artillery officer" ("Taiping Rebellion Document Collection", Zhonghua Book Company, 1979 edition, pp. 309, 324-325, 443, 445.), which were responsible for the production of various imported cannons. Repairs, maintenance and transfers. Then many arms factories were established in various places to repair and imitate foreign arms. In 1854, the Taiping Army stationed in Zhenjiang invited four foreigners to "make huge cannons and cannons, which are very refined and can reach far distances" ("Remaining Life". Reprinted from Guo Cunxiao's "Research on Artillery of the Taiping Heavenly Kingdom", see "Jianghai Xue" Journal" No. 6, 1988). In the later period of the Taiping Heavenly Kingdom, the kings of the Taiping Army in Jiangsu and Zhejiang successively established military factories of varying sizes in Suzhou, Taicang, Kunshan, Shengze, Jiading, Qingpu, Nanqiao, Tuolin, Huzhou, Jiaxing, Zhangzhou and other places. Among them, Suzhou , Kunshan and Taicang are the three largest cities. With the help of foreign engineering and technical personnel, the counterfeit products of these military factories are mainly various guns, bullets, shells, gunpowder and artillery carriages, cartridges, warships, etc. In November 1863, Suzhou garrison Tan Shaoguang, with the help of the Englishman Smith, tried to build a large ship equipped with a 32-pound cannon. However, due to the approaching war, he had no choice but to stop ("Historical Translations of the Taiping Rebellion", Vol. 2, No. 125 Page.). The extensive use of these counterfeited and imported new weapons and ammunition, and the practice of new formations, not only greatly improved the combat effectiveness of the Taiping Army, but also caused major changes in combat methods and even strategies and tactics. It can be said that the Taiping Rebellion was the first to start the practice of China's military modernization.

Thirdly, through the import of a large number of modern Western military weapons, the Taiping Heavenly Kingdom began to pay attention to and absorb modern Western science and technology, including military technology. While the die-hards in the feudal ruling group still regarded themselves as the "Great Celestial Kingdom" and regarded modern Western science and technology as "wonderful and obscene techniques," the Taiping Heavenly Kingdom leader Hong Rengan made the strongest voice of the era of learning from the West. In "The New Edition of Zizheng", Hong Rengan listed more than a dozen types of ships, trains, clocks, electric fire meters, thermometers, weather meters, telescopes, celestial rulers, serial guns, and celestial spheres that represent the development of modern Western science and technology. He proposed to set up a patent office, encourage creation and invention, and develop chariots and horses, boats and utensils, and a series of "methods to equal the prominence of the people" ("Taiping Heavenly Kingdom", Volume 2, Chapter 526). , pages 532～533, 538). Later Taiping Heavenly Kingdom generals such as Li Xiucheng, Li Shixian, Tan Shaoguang, Lin Shaozhang, etc. also showed a strong interest in Western science and technology and a studious spirit, and worked hard to introduce "various mechanical technology reforms and foreign inventions to the country" ("The Taiping Heavenly Kingdom" "Personal Experience", Volume 1, page 235), competing to introduce and appoint some foreign military, engineering, mechanical, medical and other talents to serve the Taiping Army. It is worth noting that under the baptism of blood and fire, representatives of the peasant class and the landlord class came to surprisingly similar conclusions on how to deal with modern Western industrial civilization represented by military weapons. It is conceivable that if it were not for the cruel war environment, under the guidance of the "New Edition of Zizheng", a group of Taiping generals such as Hong Rengan and Li Xiucheng who had a high level of understanding of modern Western civilization personally presided over and In practice, activities such as the Taiping Rebellion, which far preceded the Westernization Movement within the landlord class, will surely further develop into a movement for self-improvement and wealth. The historical process shows that: from the initial purchase of foreign guns and cannons to the introduction and appointment of Western military, engineering and technical personnel, to the establishment of factories to imitate advanced foreign weapons and equipment, the Taiping Heavenly Kingdom has gone through as far as the historical conditions at that time allowed. The process was exactly the initial stage of the Westernization Movement that the later Westernizationists had to overcome. Understanding this will enable us to grasp the status and role of the Taiping Rebellion in modern Chinese history more scientifically and comprehensively.