With the coming of economic globalization and information age, enterprises all over the world are facing increasingly fierce domestic and international market competition. In order to improve their competitiveness and adaptability, many enterprises are exploring effective ways to improve productivity and organizational performance. Organizational structure adjustment, organizational streamlining, organizational flattening and organizational decentralization have become the mainstream trend of contemporary organizational reform. However, practice has proved that although the above organizational structure adjustment measures can reduce costs (thus improve productivity), they may not necessarily improve performance. No matter at which level (organization, team and individual) performance is evaluated and how performance is defined, they only provide an opportunity to improve performance. What can really promote organizational performance is the change of organizational members' behavior, that is to say, to establish a learning organization is conducive to mobilizing the enthusiasm of employees and encouraging innovation. Under this background, researchers expanded the connotation of performance, and put forward the concept of "performance management" at the end of 1970s on the basis of summarizing the shortcomings of performance evaluation. In the second half of 1980s and early 1990s, with people's attention to the theoretical and practical research of human resource management, performance management has gradually become a widely recognized human resource management process.

1 the concept of performance

Bates and Holden (1995) pointed out that "performance is a multi-dimensional construction, and different factors will produce different results" [1]. Therefore, in order to measure and manage performance, we must first define it and make clear its exact connotation.

Generally speaking, performance can be defined from three levels: organization, group and individual. Different levels have different performance contents, influencing factors and measurement methods. At the personal level, people have not reached a * * * understanding of the definition of performance. At present, there are two main viewpoints: one is that performance is the result, and the other is that performance is behavior. Bernardine and others (1995) think that "performance should be defined as the result of work, because these results are most closely related to the strategic objectives, customer satisfaction and investment of the organization" [2]. Kane (1996) pointed out that performance is "something left by a person and exists relatively independently of the purpose" [3]. It is not difficult to see that "performance is the result" thinks that the result of performance work is a record of one's work performance. The related concepts of performance results are: accountability, key results areas, results, responsibilities, tasks and activities, objectives, targets or indicators, outputs and key success factors. Different definitions of performance results can be used to express the requirements of different types or levels of work, and attention should be paid to distinguishing when designing performance goals.

* This research was supported by the key project of Management Science Department of National Natural Science Foundation, with the project support number of 79930300.

Now, people have challenged the viewpoint that performance is work achievement, goal realization, result and output, and generally accepted the behavioral viewpoint of performance, that is, "performance is behavior". This does not mean that goals cannot be included in the behavioral definition of performance. Murphy( 1990) defines performance as "performance is a set of behaviors related to goals in the organization or organizational unit where a person works" [4]. Campbell (1990) pointed out that "performance is behavior and should be distinguished from results, because the results will be affected by systematic factors". He defined performance as "performance is synonymous with behavior" in 1993. It is the actual behavior of people and can be observed. By definition, it only includes actions or behaviors related to organizational goals, which can be graded (measured) by individual proficiency (that is, contribution level). Performance is something that organizations hire people to do, which needs to be done well. Performance is not the consequence or result of behavior, but the behavior itself ... Performance consists of actions related to goals under personal control, whether cognitive, physical, psychological or interpersonal "[5]. Borman & ampMotowidlo( 1993) put forward a two-dimensional model of performance, which holds that behavioral performance includes task performance and relational performance, in which task performance refers to prescribed behavior or behavior related to specific job proficiency; Relationship performance refers to spontaneous behavior or behavior related to non-specific job proficiency [6]. The basis of the above view that performance is not a work achievement or goal is: First, many work results are not necessarily caused by personal behavior, but may be influenced by other factors unrelated to work (Kadi and dobbins,1994; Murphy and Clay Behlander,1995) [7]; Second, employees do not have equal opportunities to complete their work, and their performance at work is not necessarily related to their work tasks (Murphy,1989) [8]; Third, paying too much attention to results will lead to ignoring important process and interpersonal factors, and improperly emphasizing results may mislead employees in job requirements.

We believe that in the specific practice of performance management, we should adopt a broader concept of performance, including behavior and results, and behavior is one of the conditions to achieve performance results. This view is well reflected in the definition of performance given by Brumbrach( 1988), that is, "performance refers to behavior and results. Behavior is manifested by people who are engaged in work and put their tasks into practice. (Behavior) is not only the tool of the result, but also the result itself, the result of mental and physical efforts to complete the task, and can be judged separately from the result "[9]. This definition tells us that when managing personal performance, we should consider both input (behavior) and output (result). Performance includes what to do and how to do it.

2 the necessity of management performance

Why manage performance? Why are more and more enterprises establishing performance management systems? We believe that to answer this question, at least the following aspects should be considered:

2. 1 Deficiency of performance evaluation and effectiveness of performance management

Since 1980s, the pace of economic globalization has become faster and faster, and the market competition has become increasingly fierce. In this kind of competition, if enterprises want to gain competitive advantage, they must constantly improve the overall efficiency and performance. Levinson (1976) once pointed out that "most performance evaluation systems in use have many shortcomings, which has been widely recognized. The obvious shortcomings of performance evaluation are: the judgment of performance is usually subjective, impressionable and arbitrary; The evaluations of different managers cannot be compared; Delayed feedback will make employees feel frustrated, because their good performance has not been recognized in time, or they are annoyed by their judgment based on their own shortcomings a long time ago "[10]. Practice has proved that the effective way to improve performance is performance management. Because performance management is a strategic and integrated management idea to improve employee performance, develop team and individual potential and make the organization succeed continuously. Through performance management, enterprises can realize the sustainable development of performance; Promote the formation of a more performance-oriented corporate culture; Motivate employees and make them more engaged in their work; Encourage employees to develop their own potential and improve job satisfaction; Enhance team cohesion and improve team performance; Develop a constructive and open relationship between employees and managers through continuous work communication and exchange; Provide opportunities for employees to express their work wishes and expectations [1 1].

2.2 Performance management can promote quality management.

Organizational performance can be expressed in quantity and quality. In recent years, quality has become an important aspect of organizational performance, and quality management has also become a hot spot of concern. Kathleen Guin( 1992) pointed out that "in fact, the performance management process can strengthen total quality management (TQM). Because performance management can provide managers with the skills and tools to' manage 'TQM, so that managers regard TQM as an important part of organizational culture "[12]. It can be said that a scientifically designed performance management process itself is a process of pursuing "quality"-meeting or exceeding the expectations of internal and external customers, so that employees can focus on quality objectives.

2.3 The adjustment and change of organizational structure requires new measures to manage performance.

Most structural adjustment is a response to the social and economic situation, and its manifestations are various, such as stratification, layoffs, flexibility, teamwork, high-performance work system, strategic business units and authorization. After the organizational structure is adjusted, the management ideas and styles should be changed accordingly, such as: in order to meet the needs of customers faster and better, give employees more autonomy; Give employees more opportunities to participate in management, promote their investment in work and improve their job satisfaction; Give more support and guidance to employees, and constantly improve their competency characteristics, etc., all of which must be achieved by establishing a performance management system.

3 the process of performance management

Performance management (www.chinatpm.net) is a series of employee-centered intervention activities. The ultimate goal of performance management is to fully develop and utilize the resources of each employee to improve organizational performance, that is, to improve organizational performance by improving employee performance. In the past two years, we have done a lot of theoretical and empirical research on performance management, and helped some enterprises to successfully establish performance management systems, and achieved good economic and social benefits. We believe that the core of effective performance management is the continuous cycle of a series of activities. The end of one performance management process is the beginning of another, including four links: performance planning, performance management, performance assessment and performance reward.

3. 1 performance plan

Performance planning is the process of determining the performance expectations of the organization for employees and obtaining their approval. Because performance includes result performance and behavior performance, the performance plan must clearly explain the expected results of employees and the behaviors and skills that employees are expected to take to achieve the results, that is, to determine work goals and development goals.

3. 1. 1 Work objectives and their measurement standards

The design of work goals is a bottom-up goal determination process, through which individual goals, department or team goals are combined with organizational goals. Target design is also a process in which employees fully participate in management and clarify their responsibilities and tasks, and it is a crucial link in performance management, because employees can only achieve the expected results through their own efforts if they know what they expect from the organization or department.

In the process of goal design, we should pay attention to the following aspects: first, personal goals should be consistent with departmental or team goals. The design of personal goals should be reflected in a gradual decomposition process from organizational goals to departmental or team goals and then to personal goals. Personal goals are the refinement of departmental and organizational goals, and the realization of personal goals should promote the realization of departmental or organizational goals. The determination of personal goals should consider the strategic goals of the organization, the main responsibilities of the post and the needs of internal and external customers. Second, the design of work objectives is the same task for employees and department heads. Employees should independently design their own goals and reach an agreement with department heads. In the past performance appraisal, the goal design of employees was often a top-down process, and the goal was imposed on employees, regardless of whether employees were willing to do it or not. The general practice is that the superior leaders design goals for employees at the beginning of the year and assess the completion of the goals at the end of the year, without any intermediate process. It is precisely because of this' imposition' and the insufficient participation of employees that performance appraisal has been criticized more and more. Third, the stated objectives should be concise and clear, in line with the principle of "SMART" objectives, namely: special: the definition of work objectives is accurate; Measurable: the work objectives are measurable and evaluable; Agree: both parties agree on the work objectives; Reality: the work goal can be achieved, but it is challenging; Timeliness: The work objectives clearly stipulate the deadline and review date. Fourth, to determine the main goals, generally 5-7 goals, each goal should be given weight, arranged according to the degree of importance, and the most important one should be placed at the front. Fifth, every goal should have measurable standards and be quantified as much as possible, and quantity, quality, time and cost can be selected as measurement indicators according to the quantifiable degree.

3. 1.2 development goals and their measurement standards

We know that the realization of work objectives can not be separated from the actual performance of employees, and the performance of employees should ensure the realization of the main work objectives. Therefore, while determining the work objectives, we should also determine and recognize the corresponding work behavior requirements, that is, competence. The development goal is considered when designing the goal, which is consistent with the development orientation advocated by the current performance management system. Emphasizing development goals can not only meet the needs of organizational development, but also win benefits for employees.

The method to determine the competency requirements is to establish the competency model of post requirements, which specifically includes the following five steps:

The first step is to determine the performance criteria. The ideal performance standard is "hard" indicators, such as sales or profits, patents obtained and published articles, customer satisfaction, etc. If there is no suitable "hard" index, we can adopt the way of letting superiors, colleagues, subordinates and customers nominate.

The second step is to select standard samples, that is, according to the established performance standards, select excellent groups and ordinary groups, that is, groups that meet performance standards and groups that do not meet performance standards.

The third step is to obtain the competency data related to the standard sample. The main methods to collect data are behavioral event interview, expert group method, 3600 evaluation method, questionnaire survey method, competency database expert system method and direct observation method. At present, the main method used is behavioral event interview.

The fourth step is to analyze the data and establish a competency model. By analyzing the data obtained from various ways and methods, we can identify the competency characteristics that can distinguish outstanding people from ordinary people. This step includes hypothesis generation, topic analysis or concept formation.

The fifth step is to verify the competency model. Generally, three methods can be used to verify the competency model: (1) Select the second criterion sample, and then collect data by behavioral event interviews to analyze whether the established competency model can distinguish the second criterion sample (analysts don't know who is the excellent group and who is the ordinary group in advance), that is, examine the "cross-validity"; (2) Develop a competency evaluation tool to evaluate the key competency of the second sample in the competency model, and whether the evaluation results meet the criteria, that is, to examine the "construct validity"; (3) Conduct interviews with behavioral events or other tests for selection, or adopt competency model for training. Then, these people are tracked to see if they perform better in their future work, that is, to examine the predictive validity.

According to the principle of "SMART" goal, the work goal of personal design should be achievable but challenging, that is, the work goal should be slightly higher than one's actual ability. Therefore, in order to ensure the smooth realization of the determined work goals, employees must have a process of improving their own competency characteristics, which can also promote employees to achieve higher work goals. Here, we can compile a work behavior evaluation questionnaire based on the competency model established above, and use the 3600 evaluation method to determine the gap between the actual competency of employees and the competency required by the post, that is, the training demand. Then, the development goals and plans of employees can be determined.

When making a development plan, we should pay attention to the following aspects: first, leaders and employees should reach an agreement on personal development goals. Second, employees have the right and responsibility to decide their own development goals. Third, training and development activities should support the realization of established work objectives. Fourth, training and development activities should be in line with the learning style of employees. Therefore, various methods should be adopted, such as on-the-job training, advanced studies and seminars.

3.2 Management Performance (Management Performance)

Managing employees' performance is a very important stage in performance management, and it is also a process that is often neglected. In the practice of performance management, the main function of management is to ensure that employees can successfully complete tasks within the specified time according to the goals set in the first stage. Management performance mainly adopts the following three forms:

3.2. 1 tutoring

Counseling is a process of improving employees' knowledge, ability (behavior) and skills. The main purposes of counseling are: first, to help employees know their work progress in time, to determine what work needs to be improved, what knowledge needs to be learned and what skills to master; Second, when necessary, guide employees to complete specific tasks; Third, let the working process become a learning process. Effective consultation has some characteristics: consultation is a learning process, not an education process; Employees are personally responsible for making work plans and striving to achieve the expected goals, and can get the support, consultation and monitoring of managers in the learning process; Feedback should be specific, timely and focus on good performance.

The specific process of counseling is: first, determine the knowledge and skills that employees need to learn to be competent, provide opportunities for sustainable development, and master transferable skills; Second, ensure that employees understand and accept learning needs; Third, discuss with employees what to learn and the best learning method; Fourth, let employees know how to manage their own learning and determine where they need help; Fifth, encourage employees to complete the self-study plan; Sixth, provide specific guidance when employees need it; Seventh, reach an agreement on how to monitor and review the progress of employees.

3.2.2 Consultation

Effective consultation is an important part of performance management. In the practice of performance management, the main purpose of consultation is that when employees fail to meet the expected performance standards, managers use consultation to help employees overcome obstacles encountered in the work process. In consultation, leaders should do the following: First, consultation should be timely, that is, consultation should be conducted immediately after problems arise. Second, planning should be done before consultation, and consultation should be conducted in a quiet and comfortable environment. Third, consultation is a two-way communication. Managers should play the role of "active listeners". In this way, employees can feel that the negotiation is open and encourage them to express their views more. Fourth, don't just focus on negative issues. When it comes to good performance, it should be specific and based on facts; Give specific suggestions for improvement to those who do not perform well. Fifth, finally, we should make concrete action plans to improve performance.

The consultation process includes three main stages: (1) confirmation and understanding; Identify and understand the existing problems. (2) Authorization: help employees identify their own problems, encourage them to express these problems, think about ways to solve problems and take action. (3) Providing resources: that is, driving problems, including determining other help that employees may need.

3.2.3 progress review (progress review)

Performance evaluation should be a straight-line management process, not an annual performance evaluation interview. The realization of work goals and development goals is very important to the success of the organization, and it should be monitored regularly. In the practice of performance management, people advocate frequent review. For some jobs, it is reasonable to hold talks every quarter and summarize the progress. But for other short-term jobs or new employees, feedback should be given weekly or daily. When reviewing the progress, we should pay attention to: first, the progress review should conform to the business process and the actual work of employees. Second, incorporate progress review into your work plan. Third, don't cancel the progress review because other work is busy. Fourth, progress review is not a formal or final performance review, but the purpose of progress review is to collect and share information and reach an understanding of further plans to achieve performance goals. Fifth, we can adjust the set work goals and development goals when necessary.

Self - monitoring

Due to the flattening and decentralization of the organization, employees must be encouraged to manage themselves, and employees should be able to manage their own performance without relying too much on leaders. Employees should get specific guidance and feedback from colleagues who know their daily work, take the initiative to review their performance at any time, judge their performance before the formal performance appraisal, and adjust their plans according to the results.

3.3 performance appraisal (performance approval)

Work performance appraisal can be conducted on a monthly, quarterly, semi-annual and annual basis according to specific conditions and actual needs. Job performance appraisal is a process of assessing the actual performance of employees according to the pre-determined work goals and development goals and their measurement standards. Performance contracts or agreements signed at the beginning of the assessment period generally stipulate performance objectives and performance measurement standards. Performance contracts generally include: description of work purpose, work objectives recognized by employees, development objectives and their measurement standards. Performance contract is the basis of performance appraisal. Performance appraisal includes work result appraisal and work behavior appraisal. Among them, the assessment of work results is the measurement and evaluation of employees' work objectives during the assessment period. The direct supervisor of the general staff will grade the actual completion of various work objectives according to the performance standards in the performance contract. The evaluation tool of work behavior is the work behavior evaluation questionnaire, which is compiled with the competency contained in the competency model required by the job as the structural dimension. Generally, self-assessment and 3600 evaluation are combined, and employees themselves, their superiors, colleagues, subordinates and customers rate the specific behaviors that employees can observe during the assessment period.

3.4 Reward performance

Generally speaking, both outcome performance and behavioral performance should be rewarded as long as they meet or exceed the performance standards set at the beginning of the performance appraisal period. However, the way of reward is not necessarily related to money. Moreover, rewards can only have an incentive effect if they meet the following two conditions: first, they are valued by the rewarded; Two, consistent with the efforts and achievements of the award. Because people's needs vary widely, what motivates one person may not motivate another. Therefore, an effective reward system should reflect the needs of different employees. The usual reward methods are: performance pay; Praise; Promotion; Personal bonus; Team bonus; Prizes; Special allowance, etc.

At present, people hold two opposite views on performance pay: one is for and the other is against. These different viewpoints should be taken into account when introducing the performance pay system.

1. Support the idea of performance pay.

Heneman( 1992) reported that "many studies show that performance evaluation is related to wage changes". In other words, the performance appraisal score is high, and the increase of performance salary is also high. Companies can relate performance pay to past performance. However, Heinemann (1992) further pointed out that "the correlation between salary and performance is not high". Because in addition to performance, other factors may also affect the determination of performance pay. Moreover, these studies did not talk about the incentive effect of wages [13].

2. Opposing views

Is performance pay an incentive? Can you improve performance? Such a question is difficult to answer. Because motivation and performance are influenced by many factors, they also interact [14] (Canver, 1995). Some intervention (such as performance pay) is not necessarily related to specific results. Even if correlation is found, it is not necessarily causal. Fletcher company. Williams' (1992) survey of managers shows that "in the interviews with HR and line managers, there is almost no consensus on the incentive effect of money. Most people think that the real motivation of management is professional and personal pride after reaching performance standards, or loyalty to the organization, or pressure from colleagues. On the contrary, some people think that money is the most important factor to promote performance "[15]. Thompson (1993) concluded after investigating the employees of three organizations, "In practice, we have not seen the benefits of performance pay that people often say. First, performance pay has no incentive effect (even for people with high performance evaluation), but it is likely to dampen the enthusiasm of employees. Second, there is little evidence that performance pay can retain high performers, and there is no definite evidence that low performers will seek to leave the organization. Third, even after it has been implemented for more than three years, employees still hold a negative or neutral attitude towards the influence of performance pay on organizational culture. Finally, employees don't know whether performance pay is fair "[