Mesopotamia (from Greek, meaning "between two rivers") is an ancient region located in the eastern Mediterranean, bounded to the northeast by the Zagros Mountains and to the southeast *** Bounded by the Plateau, which corresponds to parts of modern-day Iraq and Iran, Syria and Turkey are also known as the Fertile Crescent and the Cradle of Civilization.
The "two rivers" in the name refer to the Tigris and Euphrates rivers. This land is called "Al-Jazirah" (Island) by the *** and is known as a fertile land surrounded by water. . The term "Fertile Crescent" was coined by Egyptologist JH Breasted (l. 1865-1935) in 1916 to describe the region at the northern end of the Persian Gulf, associated with the biblical Garden of Eden.
Mesopotamia was the birthplace of many different civilizations spanning thousands of years, making significant contributions to world culture and progress. Many aspects of daily life are taken for granted today, such as writing, the wheel, laws and regulations, sails, the concept of the 24-hour clock, beer brewing, civil rights, and crop irrigation all originally in the land between two rivers Developed there, it was the birthplace of the great Mesopotamian civilization.
The Cradle of Civilization
Unlike the more unified civilizations of Egypt or Greece, Mesopotamia was a bastion of cultures whose only real connection was their scripts, their gods and their attitudes towards women. For example, Sumerian social customs, laws, and even language differed from those of the Akkadian period and cannot be assumed to correspond to Babylonian civilization; however, the rights of women (in certain periods), the importance of literacy, and the pantheon of gods It does seem to have been shared throughout the region, although the gods had different names in different regions and periods.
Thus, Mesopotamia should be more appropriately understood as a region that gave rise to multiple empires and civilizations, rather than any single civilization. Even so, Mesopotamia is known as the "Cradle of Civilization" primarily because of two developments that occurred in the Sumerian region in the 4th century BC:
The rise of cities recognized today.
The invention of writing (although writing is also known to have been developed in Egypt, in the Indus Valley, in China, and has been independently made in Mesoamerica).
The invention of the wheel is also credited to the Mesopotamians, and in 1922 AD archaeologist Sir Leonard Woolley discovered "the remains of two carriages, [in the ancient city of Ur Sites] of the oldest historically wheeled vehicles ever found, along with their leather tires” (Burtman, 35). Other important developments or inventions attributed to the Mesopotamians include, but are not limited to, animal domestication, agriculture and irrigation, general tools, sophisticated weapons and warfare, chariots, wine, beer, division of time into hours, minutes and seconds , religious ceremonies, sails (sailing ships) and laws and regulations. In fact, Orientalist Samuel Noah Kramer listed 39 "firsts" in human civilization that originated in Sumer. These include:
The first school, the first "apple-wiping", the first juvenile delinquency, the first "nervous war", the first bicameral congress, the first historian , the first tax cut, the first "Moses", the first legal precedent, the first pharmacopoeia, the first Farmer's Almanac, the first shade tree gardening experiment, man's first cosmic inheritance science and cosmology, the first moral ideal, the first "work", the first proverbs and proverbs, the first bestiary, the first literary debate, the first biblical parallel, the first "Noah" , the first resurrection story, the first "St. John."
George", the first literary loan case, the first heroic age of mankind, the first love song, the first library catalog, the first golden age of mankind, the first "sick" society, the first etiquette Elegy, the first Messiah, the first long-distance champion, the first literary image, the first sexual symbolism, the first Madonna, the first lullaby, the first literary portrait, the first elegy , Labor's First Triumph,
Archaeological excavations starting in the 1840s have revealed human settlements in Mesopotamia from 10,000 BC, suggesting fertile land between the two rivers The conditions allowed ancient hunter-gatherer peoples to settle on the land, domesticate animals, and turn their attention to the development of agriculture and irrigation. Trade followed, and with prosperity came urbanization and the birth of cities. It is generally accepted that writing was invented out of the need for trade, long-distance communication, and more careful recording of accounts.
Among the pantheons of Mesopotamian culture there were over 1,000 gods.
Learning and Religion
Mesopotamia was known as the seat of learning in ancient times, and Thales of Miletus (585 B.C.) is believed to have been known as the "First Philosopher" Home") studied there. Since the Babylonians believed that water was the "first principle" of all movement, and Thales was famous for this claim, it seems likely that he conducted research in this area.
Mesopotamia placed a high value on intellectual pursuits, and it is said that there were as many schools (mainly devoted to the priestly class) as there were temples, teaching reading, writing, religion, law, medicine, and astrology. The pantheon of gods in Mesopotamian culture included over 1,000 gods, and many stories about the gods (among them the creation myth, Enuma Elish). It is generally accepted that biblical stories such as the Fall of Man and the Great Flood (as well as many other stories) originated from Mesopotamian legends, as they first appeared in Mesopotamian works such as Ada The Myth of Par and the Epic of Gilgamesh, the oldest written stories in the world. The Mesopotamians believed they were co-workers with the gods and that the land was filled with spirits and demons (although "demons" should not be understood in the modern Christian sense).
They believe that the beginning of the world is the victory of the gods over the forces of Chaos, but even if the gods win, it does not mean that chaos will not come again. Through daily rituals, attention to the gods, proper funeral customs, and simple civic duties, the people of Mesopotamia felt that they helped maintain balance in the world and kept out the forces of chaos and destruction. In addition to being filial to their elders and treating others as they should, Chinese people also need to offer sacrifices to gods through daily work.
Positions
Both men and women worked "because ancient Mesopotamia was fundamentally an agricultural society, and the main occupations were growing crops and raising livestock" ( Bertman, 274). Other professions included scribe, healer, craftsman, weaver, potter, shoemaker, fisherman, teacher, priest or priestess. Bertmann writes:
At the head of society were the kings and priests who were served by the populous palace and temple staff. As standing armies were established and imperialism spread, officers and professional soldiers took their place in Mesopotamia's expanding and diverse workforce. (274)
Women have almost equal rights and can own land, apply for divorce, own their own businesses and enter into trade contracts. Contracts, business arrangements and correspondence were written on clay tablets in cuneiform script and signed with a person's cylinder seal, which was proof of a person's identity. After the tablet is dry, it is sometimes placed into a clay envelope and sealed again so that only the recipient can read the letter or contract. Cuneiform was used to write Semitic languages, such as Babylonian or others such as Sumerian, and was used until it was replaced by alphabetic scripts. Receipts for goods received were also written on cuneiform tablets (as was the case with everything, including literature) and these lasted much longer than documents written on papyrus or paper.
The world’s earliest beer receipt comes from Mesopotamia and is known as the Alulu Receipt (2050 BC), written in the city of Ur. The early brewers of beer and wine, as well as healers in the community, were initially women. These industries later appear to have been taken over by men as they were clearly lucrative occupations.
However, the work one performs is never simply "work," but rather one's contribution to the community and, by extension, to the efforts of the gods to maintain peace and harmony in the world.
Architecture and ***
Located in the center of each city (called a ziggurat, a step pyramid structure indigenous to the region), this temple symbolizes the importance of the city's patron saint Sex, any community the city presides over will worship him. Each city has its own pyramid (larger cities, more than one) to honor their patron saint. Mesopotamia gave birth to the first cities in history that were built primarily from sun-dried bricks. In Bertman's words:
The domestic architecture of Mesopotamia grew out of the soil in which it was built. Unlike Egypt, Mesopotamia—especially in the south—poor stone could be mined for construction. ” The land also lacked timber, so people “turned to other natural resources that were at hand: the dirt on the river banks and the rushes and reeds that grew in the swamps. The Mesopotamians used them to create the world's first pillars, arches, and roof structures. (285)
Simple houses were made from reeds bundled together and inserted into the ground, while more complex houses were built from sun-dried clay bricks (a practice later adopted by the Egyptians). The city and temple complexes, with their famous ziggurats, were built from oven-baked clay bricks and then painted.
Before the concept of kings, priestly rulers were thought to make laws based on religious precepts.
The gods are believed to be present in the planning and execution of any construction project, and very specific prayers, recited in a set sequence to the appropriate deity, are believed to be essential to the success of the project and the prosperity of its occupants. It's important. Home.
No matter which kingdom or empire ruled Mesopotamia, no matter what historical period, the important role of the gods in the lives of the people has not diminished. This reverence for the gods characterized the lives of fieldworkers and kings. Historian Helen Chapin Metz writes:
The existential instability of southern Mesopotamia led to a highly developed religious consciousness. Even before the rise of Sumeria, cult centers such as Eridu dating back to 5000 BC were important centers of pilgrimage and devotion. Many of the most important Mesopotamian cities emerged in the area surrounding former Sumerian cult centers, thus reinforcing the close relationship between religion and Christianity. (2)
The role of the king was established sometime after 3600 BC. Unlike the priestly rulers who preceded him, the king dealt directly with the people and made his own laws clear through the laws he enacted. Will. Before the concept of kings, priestly rulers were believed to make laws based on religious precepts and receive divine messages through signs and omens; kings, while still honoring and appeasing the gods, were considered to be a sufficiently powerful ally of these gods. The representative, by his own command, is able to express their wishes with his own voice.
This is most evident in the famous Babylonian Code of Hammurabi (1792-1750 BC), but throughout Mesopotamian history rulers who claimed direct contact with the gods were very Common, especially under the Akkadian king Naram-Sin (1792 B.C.). 2261-2224 B.C.) He even claimed to be an incarnation of God. A king is responsible for the welfare of his people, and a good king who rules according to divine will is recognized by the prosperity of the area he rules.
Still, even very efficient rulers, such as Sargon of Akkad (2334-2279 BC), had to deal with permanent uprisings and rebellions by factions or entire regions, to fight for his legitimacy. Because Mesopotamia was a vast territory with so many different cultures and races within it, a single ruler who attempted to enforce central government laws was always going to be opposed by some quarters.
History of Mesopotamia
The history of the region, and the development of the civilization that flourished there, is best understood by dividing it into several periods:
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Pre-Pottery Neolithic
Also known as the Stone Age (around 10,000 BC, but there is evidence of human habitation much earlier). Archeology has confirmed early signs of primitive settlements and warfare between tribes, most likely fertile land for crops and fields for grazing livestock. During this period, animal husbandry was increasingly practiced as the culture shifted from hunting and gathering to agriculture. Nonetheless, historian Marc Van De Mieroop points out:
The transition from hunting and gathering to agriculture was not sudden, but a slow process in which people increased their direct management resources, but still supplement their diet by hunting wild animals. Agriculture led to an increase in the continuous settlement of people. (12)
As more and more settlements developed, architectural development slowly became more sophisticated in the construction of permanent dwellings.
Pottery Neolithic Age (C 7,000 BCE)
During this period a specific culture began to emerge in the Fertile Crescent, with the widespread use of tools and pots. Scholar Stephen Bertman writes, “In this era, the only advanced technology was the ‘cutting edge’” as stone tools and weapons became increasingly sophisticated. Bertman further states that "Neolithic economies were primarily based on agricultural and pastoral food production" (55) and were more settled, whereas Stone Age communities were more mobile. As permanent settlements emerged, advances in architecture followed naturally, as did the development of ceramics and stone tool manufacturing.
The Bronze Age (5,900 – 3,200 BC)
Also known as the Chalcolithic Age due to the transition from stone tools and weapons to tools and weapons made of copper. This era includes the so-called Ubaid period (ca. 5000-4100 BC, named after Tell al-`Ubaid, the site of the greatest number of artifacts found in Iraq), during which the first of Mesopotamia A temple was built and the unwalled village developed from scattered single dwellings. These villages subsequently triggered a process of urbanization during the Uruk period (4100-2900 BC) when cities arose, especially in the Sumerian region, including Eridu, Uruk, Ur, Kish, Nuz , Lagash, Nippur and Ngirsu, and in Elam and its city of Susa.
The earliest city is usually called Uruk, although Eridu and Ur have also been suggested. Van De Mieroop writes, "Mesopotamia was the most densely urbanized region of the ancient world" (cited in Bertmann, 201), with cities that developed along the Tigris and Euphrates rivers, and those founded on more Cities in distant places established systematic trade and brought great prosperity.
This period saw the Sumerians invent the wheel (3500 BC) and writing (3000 BC), establish kingship that replaced priestly rule, and the world's first Sumerian In the war between the kingdoms of Sumer and Elam (2700 BC), Sumer was the victor. During the Early Dynastic Period (2900-2334 BC), all the advances of the Uruk period were developed and the city and the entire *** stabilized.
The region's growing prosperity resulted in ornate temples and statues, exquisite pottery and figurines, children's toys (including dolls for girls and strollers for boys), and the use of personal seals (called cylinder seals) to represent Title to the property and signed on behalf of the individual. A cylinder seal is comparable to a modern ID card or driver's license, in fact, a lost or stolen seal is as serious a problem as modern identity theft or a lost credit card.
Early Bronze Age (3,000 – 2119 BC)
During this period, bronze replaced copper as the material for making tools and weapons. The rise of the city-states laid the foundation for the economic and political stability that would eventually lead to the rise of the Akkadian Empire (2334-2218 BCE) and the center of an era of rapid growth, the two most prosperous cities of Akkad and Mari.
The cultural stability required for artistic production in the region led to more complex architectural and sculptural designs, as well as the following inventions or improvements:
Many specific and important inventions: the plow and the wheel, the chariot and the sailing ship, and Cylinder seals, the single most distinctive art form of ancient Mesopotamia, universally attest to the importance of property ownership and commerce in the country's daily life. (Bertmann, 55-56)
The Akkadian Empire of Sargon the Great was the world's first multi-ethnic realm and Sargon's daughter, Nduanna (l.2285- 2250 BCE), by the name of the first author of a literary work. The library in Mali contains more than 20,000 cuneiform tablets (books), and the palace there is considered one of the finest in the region.
King Hammurabi of Babylon (1792-1750 BC) rose from obscurity to conquer the region and rule for 43 years.
Middle Bronze Age (2119-1700 BC)
Kingdom of Assyria (Assur, Nimrud, Sharukin, Dur and Nineveh) Expansion and the rise of the Babylonian dynasty (centered in Babylon and Chaldea) created a climate conducive to trade and, therefore, increased warfare. The Guti tribe, the fierce nomads who succeeded in overthrowing the Akkadian Empire, dominated Mesopotamian politics until they were defeated by a coalition of Sumerian kings.
King Hammurabi of Babylon rose from relative obscurity to conquer the region and rule for 43 years. Among his many achievements was the famous Codex inscribed on the Tablet of the Gods. Babylon at this time became a leading center for intellectual pursuits and artistic and literary achievement. However, this cultural center did not last, being sacked and sacked by the Hittites, who were subsequently succeeded by the Kassites.
Late Bronze Age (1700-1100 BC)
The rise of the Kassite dynasty (a tribe from the northern Zagros Mountains thought to have originated in modern Iran) led to It reflects the transfer of power and the expansion of culture and learning after the Kassite conquest of Babylon. The Bronze Age collapsed as people discovered how to mine ore and utilize iron, a technique particularly used by the Kassites and earlier Hittites in warfare.
As the Kassites rose to power, this period also saw the beginning of the decline of Babylonian culture until they were defeated and expelled by the Elamites. After the Elamites gave way to the Aramaeans, the Assyrian Minor Kingdom began a series of successful campaigns, and the Assyrian Empire was consolidated under Tiglath-Beleser I (r. 1115-1076 BC) The empire was established and prosperous, and after him, Ashurnasirpal II (r. 884-859 BCE) further consolidated the empire. After the Bronze Age collapse, most Mesopotamian states were either destroyed or weakened. 1250-c.1150 BC, leading to a brief "Dark Age".
Iron Age (1000 – 500 BCE)
This era saw the rise of the Neo-Assyrian Empire under Tiglath-Pileser III (745-727 BCE) and Expansion, and the rapid rise of the empire under great Assyrian kings such as Sargon II (722 BCE - 705 BCE), Sennacherib (r. 705-681 BCE), Saha Don (r. 681-669 BCE) and Ashurbanipal (r.c. 668-627 BCE, who conquered Babylon, Syria, Israel and Egypt). The empire's decline was as rapid as its rise, thanks to repeated attacks on the central city by the Babylonians, Medes, and Scythians in 612 BC.
The Hittite and Mitanni tribes consolidated their power during this period, leading to the rise of the Neo-Hittite and Neo-Babylonian empires. The Babylonian king Nebuchadnezzar II (r. 605/604-562 BCE) destroyed Jerusalem during this period (588 BCE) and forced the inhabitants of Israel into the "Babylonian Exile." He was also responsible for the massive construction of Babylon, constructing famous structures such as the Gate of Ishtar and the great Ziggurah ("Tower of Babel"). Babylon fell to Cyrus II of Persia (550-530 BC) in 539 BC, effectively ending Babylonian culture.
After Cyrus II captured Babylon, most of Mesopotamia became part of the Persian Empire & saw a rapid cultural decline.
Classical Antiquity (500 BC – 7th century AD)
After Cyrus II captured Babylon, much of Mesopotamia became Achaemen Part of the Neder-Persian Empire, the region experienced rapid cultural changes during this period, including several changes, most notably the loss of cuneiform knowledge. Alexander the Great's conquest of the Persians in 331 BC brought cultural and religious Hellenization, but despite Alexander's attempts to make Babylon an important city again, its glory days were past.
After his death, Alexander's general Seleucid I Nicator I (r. 305 - 281 BC) took control of the area and founded the Seleucid Empire (312 - 63 BC years) until the land was conquered by the Parthians in 63 BC. In turn, it was ruled by the Sasanians who founded the Sasanian Empire (224-651 AD). The Sasanians respected the legacy of early Mesopotamian civilization and preserved their contributions.
Between the Parthian Empire (247 BC - AD 224) and the Sasanian Empire, the Roman Empire established itself in the region in 10 BC. 198 AD, (although Rome had arrived but withdrew earlier in 116-117 AD). The Romans significantly improved their colony's infrastructure by introducing better roads and pipelines, and brought Roman law to the land. Even so, the region continued to be embroiled in wars waged by various Roman emperors for control of the land, first with the Parthians and then with the Sasanians.
The ancient culture of the region, preserved by the Sassanid people, was destroyed by the *** conquest of Mesopotamia in the 7th century AD, which led to the *** religion in law, language , religious and cultural unity. Various aspects of the culture were preserved, but as Bertman points out, "the history of ancient Mesopotamia came to an end with the conquest of *** in 651 AD" (58). Today, the large cities that once sprang up along the Tigris and Euphrates rivers are mostly unexcavated mounds or broken bricks on arid plains, while the Fertile Crescent region has been transformed by human factors (such as overuse of land, agricultural pursuits, or urban development) and climate change.
Legacy
The legacy of Mesopotamia continues today through many of the most fundamental aspects of modern life, such as 60 seconds and 60 minutes. Helen Chapin Mays writes,
Because the well-being of the community depended on close observation of natural phenomena, scientific or proto-scientific activities occupied much of the priest's time. For example, the Sumerians believed that each god was represented by a number. The number sixty enshrined in Anshen is their basic unit of calculation. The minutes of an hour and the symbolic degrees of a circle are Sumerian concepts. A highly developed agricultural system and sophisticated irrigation and water control systems enabled Sumer to achieve overproduction and also led to the development of large cities. (4)
Urbanization, the wheel, writing, astronomy, mathematics, wind power, irrigation, agricultural development, animal husbandry, and ultimately what would become the Hebrew Bible and provide the basis for the Christian Old Testament The narratives come from the land of Mesopotamia.
As mentioned earlier, Kramer listed 39 "firsts" in Mesopotamia in his book "History Begins in Sumer". However, despite these "Firsts" are impressive, but Mesopotamia's contribution to world culture doesn't end there. The Mesopotamians influenced the culture of Egypt and Greece through long-distance trade and cultural diffusion, and through these influenced Roman culture, setting standards for the development and spread of Western civilization. Mesopotamia in general, and Sumer in particular, provided the world with some of the most enduring aspects of culture, and although the cities and great palaces are long gone, this legacy has continued into modern times.
In the 19th century AD, archaeologists of various nationalities came to Mesopotamia to excavate evidence to corroborate Old Testament stories. At the time, the Bible was considered the oldest book in the world, and the stories within its pages were considered original works.
Once the ancient clay tablets were discovered, archaeologists seeking physical evidence to support the biblical story found just the opposite, and it was understood that the markings on them were not designs but a form of writing.
Deciphered in 1872 AD by the scholar and translator George Smith (1840-1876 AD), these cuneiform tablets opened up the ancient civilization of Mesopotamia to the modern world. The story of the Great Flood and Noah's Ark, the story of the Fall of Man, the concept of the Garden of Eden, and even Job's complaints were all written centuries before the Mesopotamian biblical texts.
Once cuneiform could be read, the ancient world of Mesopotamia opened up to the modern world, changing people's understanding of world history and themselves. The discovery of Sumerian civilization and the story of the cuneiform tablets encouraged a new freedom of intellectual inquiry in all areas of knowledge. It is now understood that the biblical narratives are not original works of the Hebrew language, that the world is clearly older than the church claims, and that some civilizations rose and fell long before anyone thought, and if the authorities in the churches and schools making these claims were ever false, perhaps So does everyone else.
By the time Smith deciphered cuneiform, the spirit of inquiry of the late 19th century was already challenging accepted intellectual paradigms, but this was further encouraged by the discovery of Mesopotamian culture and religion. In ancient times, Mesopotamia influenced the world through its inventions, innovations, and religious visions; in modern times, it has literally changed the way people understand history as a whole and one's place in the evolving story of human civilization.