English version of the peace treaty with Japan.

Participating countries

1951September 4th, the United States unilaterally invited 52 countries to hold a peace conference with Japan in San Francisco. The San Francisco Conference was an important product of the United States supporting Japan, attacking and isolating China and other socialist countries, and rapidly establishing the Cold War order in Asia. Because the drafting of the draft peace treaty with Japan was monopolized by the United States, and almost entirely based on the international arrangement and role expectation of the United States towards Japan after World War II, the San Francisco Peace Conference aroused strong dissatisfaction from many countries. For example, India and Myanmar, which suffered from Japanese aggression and fought against Japan, refused to attend the San Francisco Conference. On September 8, representatives of 49 countries participating in the peace conference signed a peace treaty with Japan, but the Soviet Union, Poland and Czechoslovakia refused to sign it.

China, the main force in the fight against Japanese militaristic aggression in World War II, was also the country that sacrificed the most in the fight against Japanese aggression, but it was rudely shut out because of American obstruction. On September 18, China Prime Minister Zhou Enlai issued a statement on behalf of the China Municipal Government, solemnly pointing out that the San Francisco Peace Conference was a unilateral meeting and China refused to accept the legitimacy of the peace treaty. At the same time, North Korea, Mongolia, the People's Democratic Republic of Vietnam and other countries have also issued statements that they do not recognize the San Francisco Peace Treaty.

affect

Fifty years later, the San Francisco Peace Treaty, a "freak" bred by the cold war mentality of the United States at that time, still torments Asian politics, and a series of unresolved territorial disputes in East Asia have some connection with the San Francisco Peace Treaty.

The full text of the peace treaty (translated into Chinese)

Allies and Japan have decided that their future relationship will be between sovereign and equal countries, and they will advance in a friendly combination.

Cooperation to enhance their well-being and safeguard international peace and security. Therefore, I am willing to conclude a peace treaty to solve it.

All unresolved problems caused by the state of war between them.

Japan announced its willingness to join the United Nations and abide by the principles of the Charter of the United Nations under any circumstances; Devote oneself to the world

Realize the purpose of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights; Try to create stability and welfare conditions in Japan, just like Article 50 of the UN Charter.

Articles 5 and 56 created by Japanese legislation after surrender; In public-private trade and commerce,

Abide by international fair practices.

The Allies welcomed the Japanese proposal mentioned in the last section.

Therefore, the Allies and Japan decided to conclude this peace treaty, and all the plenipotentiaries signed by the factions were present.

The property right certificate is submitted for trial, and the following terms are negotiated as appropriate:

Chapter I Peace

first

A according to article 23 of this treaty, the state of war between Japan and its allies shall be determined by the state of war between Japan and its allies.

The conclusion of this Treaty shall be terminated upon its entry into force.

The Allies recognized the Japanese people's complete sovereignty over Japan and its territorial waters.

Chapter II Region

second

A Japan recognizes North Korea's independence and renounces all rights to North Korea, including Jeju Island, Juwen Island and Ulleungdo Island.

The basis and requirements of rights.

B. Japan renounces all rights, bases and claims to Taiwan Province Province and Penghu Islands.

C. Japan renounces the Kuril Islands and some Sakhalin Islands, which gained sovereignty on September 5 due to the Portsmouth Treaty,1905; and

All rights, rights bases and requirements of nearby islands.

D. Japan renounces all rights, bases and demands related to the League of Nations mandate system and accepts 1947.

On April 2, the United Nations Security Council introduced the trusteeship system to the Pacific islands previously ruled by Japan.

E. Japan renounces all claims to any right, right basis or interest in any part of the Antarctic region, regardless of whether it

Obtained through the activities of Japanese nationals or other means.

Japan has given up all rights, bases and claims to Nanwei Island and Xisha Islands.

essay

Japan is concerned about the proposal made by the United States to the United Nations to hand over the southwestern islands (including Ryukyu Islands and Dadong Islands) south of 29 degrees north latitude.

Southern islands south of Widow Rock Island (including Ogasawara Islands, Xizhi Islands and Huangliu Islands), Okinawa Reef and Nanniao Island.

Any proposal to place it under the United Nations trusteeship system with the United States as the sole administrative authority will be agreed. In proposing this kind of

The United States will have the right to the territory of these islands and their residents, including their

The territorial sea, exercising all and any administrative, legislative and judicial powers.

Article 4

A the property of Japan and its nationals in the areas referred to in Article 2 and the current administrative authorities and residents in these areas (including

Including legal persons), including the handling of debts, as well as the property of such administrative organs and residents in Japan and such administrative expenses.

The demands of the bureau and residents on Japan and its nationals, including the handling of debts, should be handled exclusively by Japan and such administrative authorities through consultation.

Way. If the property of any ally or its national in the area referred to in Article 2 has not been returned, it shall be returned by the administrative authorities according to its current situation.

Forms to be returned (the term "national" mentioned in this treaty includes legal persons).

This paragraph shall be subject to the restrictions stipulated in paragraph b of this article.

B Japan recognizes the treatment of Japanese and its nationals' property by the US military government in any area mentioned in Articles 2 and 3.

Or on instructions from the U.S. military government.

3. According to this Treaty, the submarine cables belonging to Japan and connecting Japan with the territories separated from Japanese rule shall be distributed equally.

Japan keeps half of the wires that end in Japan and are connected with it, and leaves the territory to keep half of the remaining wires and their connections.

Terminal equipment.

Chapter III Safety

Article 5

A Japan accepts the obligations stipulated in Article 2 of the Charter of the United Nations, especially the following obligations:

(1) International disputes should be settled by peaceful means so as not to endanger international peace, security and justice;

(2) Not to use threat or force in its international relations, or in any other way inconsistent with the purposes of the United Nations.

Damage the territorial integrity or political independence of any country;

(3) We should do our best to help the actions taken by the United Nations in accordance with the provisions of the Charter and serve any country in the United Nations.

No assistance shall be given to the country when it takes preventive or enforcement actions.

B. Allies confirm that in their relations with Japan, they will be guided by the principle of Article 2 of the Charter of the United Nations.

C. The Allies recognized Japan's independence as a sovereign country as stated in Article 5 1 of the Charter of the United Nations.

Or the right to collective self-defense, and may voluntarily join the collective security agreement.

Article 6

A after the entry into force of this treaty, all allied occupation forces should leave Japan as soon as possible, and in any case, their withdrawal shall not be later than this treaty.

90 days after the entry into force of the treaty. However, the provisions of this paragraph shall not prevent foreign armed forces from acting on or due to one or more items.

Allies have concluded or will conclude bilateral or multilateral agreements with Japan, but they are stationed or stay in Japanese territory.

B1The provisions of Article 9 of the Potsdam Declaration of July 26, 945 on the repatriation of Japanese military forces have not been fully implemented.

, should be realized.

C all Japanese property that was used by the occupying forces at the entry into force of this Treaty and is still occupied by the occupying forces and has not been compensated,

Unless otherwise agreed by both parties, it shall be returned to the Japanese government within 90 days after the entry into force of this Treaty.

Chapter IV Political and Economic Clauses

Article 7

A within one year after this treaty came into effect between countries and Japan, the allies informed Japan that they had established diplomatic relations with Japan before the war.

Which bilateral treaties are willing to remain in force or resume? After notification, this Treaty shall be amended only when necessary.

In order to conform to this treaty, it should remain in force or be restored. The treaty after this notification shall be deemed to come into force three months after the date of notification.

In order to continue to be effective or restored, it should be registered with the United Nations Secretariat. All treaties that have not been notified to Japan by the above method.

, shall be deemed to have been abolished.

B in any notification made under paragraph a of this article, any territory that the notifying country is responsible for international relations may be set aside.

Outside the scope of validity of the treaty that continues to be implemented or resumed. If you are willing to stop this exception, you will be notified to Japan.

God, it will stop in three months.

Article 8

A. Japan recognizes all treaties concluded by the Allies to end the state of war since September 1939.

As well as the full validity and role of any other agreement reached by the allies to restore peace. Japan has accepted as always.

Agreement between the League of Nations and the Permanent Court of International Justice.

B on September 9, July 9 and July 9, 20 10, Japan renounced its status as a signatory of the saint-germain Convention.

And all the rights and interests obtained in Article 16 of July 1923 Lausanne Turkey Peace Treaty.

C. Japan renounces all rights, rights bases and interests it has acquired through the following agreements, and cancels the agreements it has issued.

All obligations of students:1930 65438+1agreement between Germany and creditor countries on October 20th and its annexes, including1930 May 17.

Trust agreement,1930 65438+1October 20th Agreement on Bank for International Settlements and Articles of Association of Bank for International Settlements. Japan will be in this treaty.

Notify the Ministry of Foreign Affairs in Paris within six months after the entry into force that it waives the rights, rights base and interests mentioned in this item.

Article 9

Japan will quickly hold bilateral talks with its allies who are willing to negotiate on the control or restriction of high-seas fishing and the protection and development of high-seas fishing.

And the negotiation of multilateral agreements.

Article 10

Japan renounces all its privileges and interests in China, including the final protocol signed in Beijing on September 7, 190 1 and its

All benefits and privileges arising from all annexes, supplementary notes and documents, and agrees that in the case of Japan, the Protocol

All its attachments, bills and documents are invalid.

Article 11

Japan accepts the judgments of the Far East International Military Tribunal and the war crimes tribunals of other allies inside and outside Japan, and will implement them.

The court sentenced Japanese nationals currently detained in Japan. Such criminals have the right of pardon, commutation and parole.

It shall not be exercised unless it is decided by one government or several governments respectively and recommended by Japan. Such as this project.

Criminals were sentenced by the Far East International Military Tribunal, and this right was decided by the governments of most countries participating in the Tribunal and Japan.

This suggestion must not be exercised.

Article 12

A. Japan announced that it was ready to negotiate with its allies immediately to conclude treaties or agreements, thereby transferring its trade, shipbuilding and others.

Business relations are based on solid friendship.

B before concluding relevant treaties or agreements, Japan will, within four years after the entry into force of this treaty:

(a) Give the allies and their nationals, goods and ships the following treatment:

(a) granting most-favoured-nation treatment in respect of tariffs, taxes, restrictions and other laws and regulations applicable to imported and exported goods;

(b) Maritime transport, navigation and import of goods, as well as national treatment of natural and legal persons and their interests. This kind of waiting

Participate in daily activities when encountering problems such as taxation, litigation, signing and execution of contracts, and property rights (tangible and intangible).

Companies established under this law usually engage in various commercial and professional activities.

(two) to ensure that the foreign procurement and sales of Japanese state-owned trading enterprises should only be based on commercial considerations.

C. But in any case, the national treatment or MFN treatment granted by Japan to an ally should only be related to the relevant ally.

Give Japan national treatment or most-favored-nation treatment on the same issue. The principle of reciprocity contained above.

Products, ships and companies involved in any area other than the headquarters of the Allies, as well as people with residences in this area, and people involved.

Companies in any state or province allied with the federal system and people with residences in that state or province shall abide by it.

According to the treatment given to Japan by territory, state or province.

D in the application of this article, if the discriminatory treatment method is based on what is usually stipulated in the agreement of the party invoking the method.

Exceptions, or for the purpose of protecting one party's external financial situation or payment balance (except for shipping and navigators).

) or based on the need to safeguard major security interests, such differential treatment measures shall not be regarded as the most important measures for national treatment or

The treatment of benefiting the country and the people is damaged. However, this method is suitable for the situation, not in an arbitrary or unreasonable way.

E. the exercise of any joint rights under article 14 of this treaty shall not affect Japan's obligations under this article.

The ring. Nothing in this Article shall be construed as limiting Japan's obligations under Article 15 of this Treaty.

Article 13

A when Japan requests any ally to conclude bilateral or multilateral international air service agreements,

Negotiations should be held with this ally immediately.

B before concluding this agreement, Japan will give this ally not less than four years from the entry into force of this treaty.

When this treaty comes into effect, allies should enjoy the rights and privileges of air transport when operating and developing air transport.

Industry, giving completely equal opportunities.

C before Japan acceded to the Convention on international civil aviation in accordance with article 93, it made a reservation to the Convention.

The provisions applicable to international air traffic should be implemented, and the standards specified in the annex should conform to the provisions of the convention.

Measures and procedures should also be implemented.

Chapter V Requirements and Property

Article 14

A hereby admits that Japan should compensate its allies for the damage and suffering caused by the war, but at the same time admits that if it wants to

In order to maintain a viable economy, Japan's resources are currently insufficient to fully compensate for this damage and suffering, while fulfilling its

He is in business. Therefore:

(1) Japan is willing to enter the customs as soon as possible with those allies who are willing to negotiate and whose existing territory is occupied by the Japanese army and damaged by Japan.

Negotiations, in order to make the Japanese people's services in manufacturing, salvage and other work available to the allies as cooperation.

Help compensate each country for the cost of repairing damage. This method should avoid bringing additional burden to other allies. p.r.n.

When manufacturing raw materials, they should be provided by allies to avoid any foreign exchange burden on Japan.

(2) (a) According to the following provisions in item (b), each ally shall have the right to detain, liquidate or use it.

He disposes of all the following property, rights and interests:

(a) Persons belonging to Japan and its nationals;

(ugly) agents or representatives of Japan or its nationals;

(c) belonging to a group owned or controlled by Japan or its nationals, and the property will be under the jurisdiction of the allies when this Treaty comes into force.

Jurisdiction. The property and rights and interests referred to in this item include the property and rights and interests that are currently sealed up, disposed of and occupied by the property management authorities of the enemy country.

Possession or control, and these properties and rights and interests belong to the above item (a) when they are controlled by the enemy property management authority.

(b) (c) Any individual or group mentioned in each project is kept or managed by or on behalf of individuals or groups.

The following items are not included in the rights specified in item (a) above:

(a) Japanese natural persons who, with the permission of the relevant government, lived in the territory of allied countries not occupied by Japan during the war.

Property, but property restricted during the war and still restricted when this Treaty comes into force, is not included.

All real estate, furniture and fixtures are private property owned by the Japanese government for diplomatic or consular purposes.

Furniture and equipment, and other non-investment Japanese diplomacy that is often needed to perform diplomatic and consular duties.

And personal property of consular personnel;

(iii) Property belonging to religious groups or private charities and used exclusively for religious or charitable purposes;

(d) Property under the jurisdiction of the countries concerned due to the resumption of trade and property relations with Japan after 2 September 1945,

Rights and interests, but the rights and interests obtained from transactions that violate the laws of the relevant allies are not included.

(Chen) Debt of Japan or its nationals, any right, right base or interest in Japan's tangible property, and

The interests of an enterprise organized according to Japanese laws, or any relevant written evidence, but this exception should only apply to Japan.

Debt of Japanese nationals.

(c) The property mentioned in the above exceptions (a) to (e) shall be returned, but in order to preserve and manage the property,

Reasonable expenses incurred can be deducted. If the limited property has been liquidated, the liquidation proceeds shall be returned.

(d) The right to detain, distrain, liquidate or otherwise dispose of property specified in (a) above shall meet the following rights.

If the laws of the relevant allies are exercised, the owner should only have the rights granted to him by those laws.

(e) Allies agree to license Japanese trademarks and their literary and artistic property rights according to the situation of each ally.

Within the scope of preferential treatment.

B unless otherwise stipulated in this treaty, the allies hereby waive all their claims for compensation, and all the allies and their nationals oppose Japan and its.

Other requirements caused by actions taken by nationals in the course of combat, as well as the requirements of allies for direct military expenses of occupation.

Article 15

A all the allied countries and their nationals owned all the tangible property in Japan during the period from1February 7, 945 to 194 165438+ on September 2, 945.

And intangible property and all rights or interests of any kind.

Japan should return it within six months from the date of the request, but the owner has always been free and has not been intimidated or defrauded.

The manager is not in this list. This kind of property should be returned, without the burden and expenses imposed by the war, and without the need to return it.

How much is the charge? If the owner or his agent or his government fails to demand the return of the property within the specified time limit, the Japanese government may decide on its own.

Fixed processing. These properties were in Japan on February 7 and cannot be returned or have been damaged or destroyed by the war.

At that time, the compensation conditions were not lower than those stipulated in the draft Allied Property Compensation Law adopted by the Japanese Cabinet on July1913.

One.

B regarding industrial property rights damaged in wartime, Japan will continue to grant its allies and their nationals no less than 1949.

Order 309, 1950, 65438+ 12, which came into effect on September 28th, 2008, and Order 1950, which came into effect on February 28th, was born.

The benefits given by Order No.9 and all amendments to the Order, but this citizen has requested to give them within the prescribed time limit.

The number of people seeking such benefits is limited.

(1) The relevant allies and their nationals recognized by Japan as existing in Japan on June194165438+February 6 have been made public or not.

The property rights of literary or artistic works shall continue to be effective after that date, and it is recognized that Japan still exists after that date.

Rights arising in Japan due to the validity of any convention or agreement of a contracting state, or rights that may arise in non-war situations.

Rights, regardless of whether such conventions or agreements were abolished by Japan or relevant allies in domestic law at the outbreak of war or later.

Or suspend its effectiveness.

(2) Arrive in Japan from194165438+February 7th without waiting for the right owner to apply, pay any fees or perform any other formalities.

The period of the effective date of this Treaty for the relevant allies shall be deducted from the calculation of the normal duration of their rights; In the meantime,

In order to obtain the right of translation in Japan, the period during which literary and artistic works must be translated into Japanese should be reduced by an additional period of six months.

Besides.

Article 16

In order to express the desire for compensation for the excessive pain suffered by allied personnel during their time as Japanese prisoners of war, Japan promises.

A country that is neutral in wartime or at war with any ally, or this is all the assets owned by Japan and its nationals.

The amount equivalent to Class I assets should be handed over to the International Committee of the Red Cross, which will clean up the assets and collect funds according to its opinions.

The basis of fairness is distribution to former prisoners of war and their families. However, Article 14 (2) (b) to (e) of this treaty.

The assets mentioned in each item, as well as the assets of Japanese natural persons who did not live in Japan at the time of the initial entry into force of this Treaty, will not be transferred.

Column. It is also known that the provisions on transfer in this article do not apply to the10,000 Bank for International Settlements currently owned by Japanese financial institutions.

9770 shares.

Article 17

A. At the request of any ally, the Japanese government has done something about the case that Japan seized the ownership of the allied countries participating in the trial.

The judgment or order shall be reviewed and revised in accordance with the principles of international law, and copies of all documents recorded in this case shall be provided, including

Including decisions made and orders issued. If the review or modification shows that rights must be restored, the provisions of Article 15 shall

This applies to related property.

B the Japanese government shall take all necessary measures to make this treaty enter into force among nationals of any of Japan's allies.

At any time within one year from the date, a review can be submitted to the relevant Japanese authorities. The review time is June194165438+February 7 from the date of entry into force of this Treaty.

In any judgment made during this period, and in any procedure of the case, the national failed to completely present himself as plaintiff or defendant.

It is said that if the national love is hurt by this judgment, the Japanese government should try its best to restore his status before the judgment is made.

Or get fair and balanced relief according to the situation.

Article 18

A it is acknowledged that due to the existing obligations and contracts (including the debtor) and the rights acquired before the existence of the state of war.

Produced by the Japanese government or its nationals to any allied government or its nationals, or any allied government or its

The obligation to pay the money and debts owed by the Japanese government or its nationals is not affected by the intervention of the state of war.

For property loss or damage or personal injury or death that occurred before the intervention in the state of war, any ally

Any request made or repeated by the government to the Japanese government or the Japanese government to any allied government should be considered on its merits.

Obligation, also should not be regarded as affected by the state of war intervention. The provisions of this paragraph shall not affect Article 14 of this Treaty.

Give it power.

B. Japan admits that it is responsible for the foreign debts of Japanese countries before the war and the debts of legal person organizations declared by Japan later.

Service, and expressed willingness to negotiate with creditors on the early resumption of debt repayment; With regard to other pre-war demands and debts

Encourage through consultation; This also helps to transfer the resulting funds.

Article 19

A. Japan abandons all demands made by Japan and its nationals on its allies and its nationals due to the existence of a state of war.

, and before the entry into force of this Treaty, give up its stay, military action or presence in Japanese territory because of any allied army or authority.

All the demands caused by his behavior.

B the above waiver includes actions taken by any ally against Japanese ships from September 1939 to the effective date of this treaty.

Any demands arising from relocation, including any demands and debts arising from prisoners of war and civilians detained by the Allied Forces.

However, it does not include the requirements recognized by Japan's laws enacted by any ally after September 2, 1945.

C on the condition of mutual renunciation, the Japanese government, on behalf of the Japanese government and Japanese nationals, renounces its commitment to German nationals.

All requirements (including debts), including intergovernmental requirements and requirements for loss or damage in wartime,

But it does not include the following two requirements: (1) Requirements related to contracts concluded before September 1939 and rights obtained.

, and (2) the requirements arising from the trade and financial relations between Germany and Japan after September 2, 1945. This project

The waiver shall not affect the actions taken in accordance with Articles 16 and 20 of this Treaty.

D. Japan recognizes acts caused by the occupation authorities or authorized by Japanese laws at that time according to the instructions of the occupation authorities.

The effectiveness of actions and omissions, and no action should be taken to make the nationals of the allies bear the consequences of such actions or omissions.

Civil or criminal liability.

Article 20

Japan will take necessary measures to ensure the right to dispose of German assets in Japan in accordance with the Protocol of the Berlin Conference 1945.

The disposal of these assets that the state has decided or may decide has been implemented. In addition, Japan has not yet finally disposed of these assets.

Before, it will be responsible for preservation and management.

Article 21

Despite the provisions of Article 25 of this Treaty, China still enjoys the benefits stipulated in Articles 10 and 14 (a) (2);

North Korea can enjoy the benefits stipulated in Articles 2, 9 and 12 of this Treaty.

Chapter VI Settlement of Disputes

Article 22

If either party to this treaty believes that the interpretation and implementation of this treaty has taken place and cannot be submitted to the special requesting court or

When disputes are settled by other agreements, they shall be submitted to the International Court of Justice for adjudication at the request of either party.

One. Japan and its allies, which have not yet acceded to the Statute of the International Court of Justice, will ratify the Treaty in accordance with the provisions of the United Nations.

By its resolution 1946 10 10/5, the Security Council transmitted a general statement to the Registrar of the International Court of Justice explaining the relevant issues.

Unless otherwise specified, all disputes of the nature mentioned in this article are generally under the jurisdiction of the International Court of Justice.

Chapter VII Final Clauses

Article 23

A this treaty shall be ratified by signatory countries including Japan, and signed by Japan and the United States as the main occupying power.

More than half of the following countries are Australia, Canada, Ceylon, France, Indonesia, the Kingdom of the Netherlands and New Zealand.

Ireland, Pakistan, the Philippines, the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland and the United States of America have deposited their

After ratification, it will enter into force for each ratifying country. For countries that later ratify this Treaty, this Treaty shall be deposited with their respective countries.

It will take effect as of the date of approval.

B if this treaty has not entered into force nine months after Japan deposited its instrument of ratification, any ratifying country may submit it to Japan for this purpose.

Notify the Japanese government and the American government within three years from the date of deposit of the instrument of ratification, so that this treaty can enter into force between that country and Japan.

Force.

Article 24

All instruments of ratification shall be deposited with the Government of the United States of America, which shall abide by Article 20 in accordance with the above deposit.

Article 3 (a) The effective date of this Treaty and the notice issued in accordance with Article 23 (b) shall be notified to all signatory countries.

Article 25

Allies referred to in this Treaty refer to countries that have fought against Japan, or any countries that once constituted countries referred to in Article 23.

A country that is part of its territory, provided that the country concerned has signed and ratified this Treaty. Except as provided in Article 2 1,

This treaty does not grant any rights, rights bases and interests to any country that is not an ally referred to in this article; The appointment of this treaty

Except as mentioned in this clause, no clause is allowed to give up or damage any right, right base or interest of Japan in favor of its allies.

Article 26

Japan is prepared to fight against any country that has signed or acceded to the United Nations1942 65438+101Declaration but is not a signatory to this Treaty.

A country, or any country that previously formed part of the territory of a country referred to in Article 23 but is not a signatory to this Treaty.

The country shall conclude a bilateral treaty that is the same as or roughly the same as this treaty, but this obligation of Japan will arise at the beginning of this treaty.

It will be terminated at the expiration of three years after the effective date. If Japan establishes a peace agreement or a war compensation agreement with any country, it will give that country better.

If this Treaty provides for greater benefits, these benefits shall be given equally to the States parties to this Treaty.

Article 27

This Treaty shall be deposited in the archives of the Government of the United States of America. The Government of the United States of America shall pay a copy of this Treaty.

Send it to each signatory.

In witness whereof, the undersigned plenipotentiaries have signed this Treaty.

195 1 year at San Francisco on September 8th, written in English, French, Spanish and Japanese with the same effect.